I. Introduction

Mine rescue training must begin with the basic knowledge of self contained breathing apparatus(SCBA) and the primary apparatus that you will be required to wear.  This manual is to familiarize yourself to the apparatus, don the apparatus correctly, wear the apparatus in smoke or confined space, and to react properlt in case of failure in any part the SCBA.

II. Development of SCBA

The history of the development of self-contained breathing apparatus goes quite far back in time, though in the early days most of the attention was given to designing a unit to protect firemen from smoke inhalation.

One such design for firemen dates back to about 1825 when the "smoke filter" was used.  It consisted of a leather hood and a hose that was strapped to one of the wearer's leg.  It did not contain its own supply of oxygen.  Rather, it was designed so that when the wearer inhaled from inside the hood, air would be drawn up through the hose.

The idea behind this design was that the best air during a fire is closest to the floor.  The hose and hood was intended to provide this better air to the firemen as they worked in smoke.

Soon after, equipment was designed to provide the firemen with good safe air to breathe for short periods of time.  One such design was the "supplied air suit" which was filled with fresh air to breathe.

Another design for firefighters was a bag-like unit filled with fresh air and carried on one's back, much like some of today's units.

Underwater divers also used some of the first self contained breathing apparatus developed.

Then, in 1853, self-contained breathing apparatus was introduced for use in the mines by a Professor Schwann of Belgium.  In that year, Schwann entered a self-contained breathing apparatus in a competition of the Belgian Academy of Science, and exhibited it at an industrial fair in Belgium.

In 1880, the original Fleuss apparatus was introduced in England, and in 1903 the original Draeger apparatus was developed in Germany.

In the United States, breathing apparatus were introduced in 1907 when five Draeger units were purchased by the Boston and Montana Mining Company in Butte, Montana.

Records show that also in 1907, apparatus were first used to fight fires and explore ahead of fresh air in the mines:

1. In October or November of 1907, Draeger apparatus were used by a crew of men during the fighting and sealing of a mine fire at the Minnie Healy Mine of the Boston and Montana Mining and Smeiting Company in Butte, Montana.
2. On December 6, two Draeger apparatus were used to explore ahead of fresh air after an explosion in the Monongah Mine of the Consolidated Coal Company in Monongah, West Virginia.
3. On December 19, apparatus were used after an explosion in the Darr Mine of the Pittsburgh Coal Company in Jacobs Creek, Pennsylvania.

In 1910, the Bureau of Mines was established.  The Bureau began equipping mine rescue railroad cars and stations with apparatus and began training miners in the use and care of the breathing apparatus.  Thus, the equipment necessary for rescue work and the trained teams to use it gradually became more available to the mines.

At first, all the apparatus used in this country were imported from Europe.  Then in 1918, the Gibbs apparatus was designed and manufacture.  This was followed by the Paul in 1920 and the McCaa in 1927.  These early American-made apparatus were designed for 2-hour use.

The development of self-contained breathing apparatus has continued to progress through the years.  A number of different manufacturers are now producing apparatus that are approved to be used for periods of 2, 3, and 4 hours at a time.  Among these apparatus commonly used for mine rescue work are the Draeger BG 174, the Aerolox, and the Scott Rescue-Pak.

III. Types of SCBA

a. Open and Closed Circuit SCBA- Self-contained breathing apparatus can be divided into two main categories: open circuit systems and closed circuit systems.  The basic difference between the two systems is this: An open circuit system releases all of your exhaled air (carbon dioxide) to the outside atmosphere through a valve in the facepiece, and supplies you with fresh air to breathe.  A closed circuit system does not release the exhaled air.  Rather, it recirculates the air through the apparatus and purifies the air, taking out the carbon dioxide and adding fresh oxygen to the air.  You are then supplied with the air that has been oxygen enriched.

b. Primary and Auxiliary SCBA- In mine rescue work, apparatus are classified as being either "primary" or "auxiliary" apparatus depending on how much air or oxygen they can supply to you when you wear them.  Primary apparatus are apparatus that have a minimum of 2 hours service time.  Auxiliary apparatus are units which provide, by law, 30 to 60 minutes' service time.

Primary apparatus are the standard apparatus that mine rescue teams use.  Part 49 of Title 30 of the Code of Federal Regulations (30 CFR) specifies that rescue teams must be provided with self-contained breathing apparatus that have at least a 2-hour service time and are approved under Federal guidelines.

Auxiliary apparatus are only acceptable for a mine rescue team member to use so long as the team member has ready access to fresh air and has at least one rescue team equipped with an approved self-contained breathing apparatus of 2-hours or longer rating in reserve at the fresh air base.

Auxiliary apparatus may either be open or closed circuit systems.  Primary apparatus, on the other hand, are designed as closed circuit systems.

c. Apparatus Approval- In order for any self-contained breathing apparatus to be used in mine rescue work, the apparatus must first be approved by the Federal movement.

Back in 1918, the Bureau of Mines began to test and approve apparatus under Schedule 13 which established the standards for approval.

Today, the testing of the apparatus is handled by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).  The apparatus approval is granted jointly by NIOSH and the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA).

IV. History of mine rescue

a. Helmet Crews- In 1910, however, the U.S. Bureau of Mines was formed, and with it came the organization, training, and ''team" element that mine rescue so badly needed.

The Bureau established a network of specially outfitted railroad cars and placed them at strategic locations throughout the mining areas of the United States.  Each car served as a base of operations for a group of individuals trained and equipped specifically for mine rescue work.

Because their breathing gear's full head covering resembled a deep sea diver's helmet, the groups became known as "helmet crews."  The crews were trained to respond quickly and professionally to disasters in their own districts, much as modern teams do.

The new helmet crews were called on to lend a hand at several major disasters, and they were responsible for saving the lives of scores of trapped miners.  Although the crew's access to breathing gear and other equipment was a great help to them, their success could be attributed to more than that.

For the first time, the rescuers had the training and organization they needed to turn an uncoordinated, often even chaotic, rescue attempt into a well coordinated efficient group effort.  The birth of the early helmet crews clearly marked the beginning of modern mine rescue teams.

b. The 1940’s- In the 1940's, World War II spurred increasing demand for mined products, so more miners were put to work.  At the same time, the mines were becoming more highly mechanized.  These factors combined to produce more hazards, and the result was more chance for disaster.

In terms of sheer numbers, the disaster statistics of the 40's came nowhere near matching those of earlier years, but they were nonetheless sobering.  In 1940, for example, the Bartley No. 1 coal mine in West Virginia claimed 91 lives.  In 1942, 56 died in the Christopher No. 3 coal mine disaster also in West Virginia.  And a disaster at the Centralia No. 5 coal mine in Illinois claimed 111 lives in 1947.

These tragedies pointed to the need for preventing disasters by reducing the hazards that led to them.  There were big changes afoot.  Even though mining was a hazardous occupation, there were ways to make it safer.

On the state and Federal levels, this meant establishing and enforcing laws aimed at making the mines safer places in which to work.  Mining companies also joined in the effort to reduce mining hazards by developing safety programs and improving conditions within the mines.  To some extent, the changes worked.  The number of disasters decreased, as did the number of those who died in them.

Today, great emphasis is still placed on establishing and enforcing mine health and safety regulations.  This continues to significantly reduce mining hazards.  Modern technological advances and increased mechanization have also made it possible for fewer miners to remove ever-increasing amounts of materials from beneath the earth's surface.  This reduction in the number of man-hours required to do work has also reduced the chance for disaster.

c. Recent Disasters- Although these changes have helped reduce the incidence of disaster in the mines, they have not totally eliminated the problem.  Disaster still haunts the mining industry.  This becomes all too evident as you call to mind some of the disasters that have taken place in recent years.

Witness, for example, the tragedy that took place at the Sunshine Mine in Kellogg, Idaho when 91 miners died from fire and carbon monoxide poisoning in 1972.  In 1968, 78 miners died in an explosion al the Farmington No. 9 mine in West Virginia.  In that same year, 26 miners died in a disaster inside the Belle Isle Salt Mine in Louisiana.  In 1980, an explosion claimed 5 lives at the Ferrel No. 17 coal mine in southern West Virginia.  And, in 1981, a methane explosion in the Dutch Creek No. 1 coal mine near Redstone, Colorado killed 15 miners.

d. Mine rescue today- The mine rescue teams today's miners depend on are a far cry from their earlier counterparts.  Rescues are no longer disorganized, haphazard affairs taken on by whoever happens to be in the area at the time of the disaster.  Today's rescues are highly organized efforts carried out by a group of individuals working together as a team.

Recent developments in mine rescue emphasize two very important areas: training the teams, and improving the equipment they use.

For example, the new Federal requirements for mine rescue, which we'll talk about later on, set minimum standards for setting up, training, and equipping mine rescue teams.  The law stresses that each member of the team must have practical training, and it sets guidelines for equipment maintenance and inspection.  This helps to ensure that well-trained, properly equipped teams will be ready to work quickly and efficiently during an actual emergency.

Today's teams also have modern technology to thank for the increasingly sophisticated array of equipment they use to supplement their efforts.  Early apparatus crews could count on their scabs to provide only one or two hours of breathing protection.  Today's teams have much longer duration apparatus, plus many other devices that their predecessors, armed primarily with shovels, picks, and hatchets, probably never even dreamed of.

Today’s team, for example, use modern gas detection and communication equipment.  They also have at their command the latest technique and devices for sealing mines and fighting fires.

The computer age has also provided mine rescue with seismic locators, geophones, and other devices used to pinpoint trapped miners.  These are all a part of MSHA's

Mine Emergency Operations (MEO), along with two National Mine Rescue Teams - one for coal mines and one for metal/nonmetal mines.

MSHA MEO also possesses the opability to drill boreholes down from the surface to reach miners who, in an earlier time would have been given up for dead.  Once a borehole is drilled with what's known as a "survival drill," rescuers can lower cameras, lights, and microphones into the mine to help locate the miners, determine their situation, and lend support and assistance while an escape route is drilled.  Once that is complete, the trapped miners can be safely hauled to the surface in specially designed "escape capsules."  Rescue teams in some areas (such as Pennsylvania and Utah) also have access to another advanced form of supplementary mine rescue equipment-the mobile mine rescue van.

Designed for use during prolonged rescue efforts, these vans are equipped to serve as a base of operations for one or more teams throughout a rescue.  The vans are outfitted with standard mine rescue gear such as breathing aphanites, recharging facilities, hand tools, and first aid supplies.

Some of the vehicle can boast the additional distinction of being virtual "moving laboratories," equipped with computers and other devices sophisticated enough to perform delicate tests like on-site gas analysis-a time consuming task previously performed only in distant laboratories.

V. Mine rescue and the law

a. Before Part 49- Until recently, 311 underground mines were not required to have access to mine rescue teams.  Many of the teams now in existence were set up voluntarily -often in reaction to the tragedy of a major disaster.  Other mines often followed suit, realizing that even though they had not experienced a disaster, it paid to be ready for one.

Many state departments of mines set up teams of their own so that they too would be ready to lend a hand if a disaster should occur.  MSHA also trained and outfitted its own teams to ensure they would be ready to respond at a moment's notice to a disaster anywhere in the United States.

b. Part 49- It wasn't until recently, however, that the U.S. Congress passed laws making it mandatory for every mine in the country to have access to mine rescue teams.  These regulations are contained in Part 49 of Title 30 of the Code of Federal Regulations (30) "Part 49", as we’ll refer to it here, will have far-reaching consequences for mine rescue.  For one thing, by making it mandatory for every mine to have rescue teams available, it will greatly increase the number of teams throughout the country.

Part 49 also specifies how many members each team should have, what equipment they should have on hand, and how the equipment is to be stored and maintained.  The law also contains requirements for the notification plan to be used during an emergency.

Part 49 also specifies what physical standards and other qualifications you must meet to be eligible for team membership, and it sets some minimum standards for the amount and type of training you receive.  According to law, if you're a new mine rescue team member, you must have least 20 hours of instruction on how to use, care for, and maintain the breathing apparatus.

Once you've completed this initial training, the law requires that you have at least 40 hours of additional training, every year as long as you're on the team.  This is known as "advanced refresher training.  As part of this advanced refresher training, the law requires that you have at least one underground session every six months.  The law also specifies that you practice under oxygen for at least two hours every two months during your refresher training.

Besides "reviewing" your basic apparatus skills, your 40-hour advanced/refresher course will introduce you to advanced mine rescue skills, keep you abreast of changes, and give you a chance to do some practical, problem-solving work.

c. Eligibility- As we mentioned earlier, Part 49 also designates what standards make you eligible for team membership.  For instance, the law says that in order to be on a team you must have worked in an underground mine for at least one year during the past years.  You also qualify if you're employed on the surface but regularly work underground.

The law also specifies what physical standards you must meet in order to become a team member.

d. Mine Rescue Station and Equipment- Another part of the law requires that a mine rescue station be established "to provide a centralized storage location for mine rescue equipment." The rescue station is where you'll store and maintain equipment so it will be ready to use immediately during an emergency.

The law also specifies what equipment must be available at the mine rescue station.  For instance, according to law, the station must be outfitted with at least twelve self- contained breathing apparatus, equipment necessary to test them, and enough carbon dioxide absorbent chemicals and oxygen to supply six hours of breathing protection for each team member.

The law also requires that the rescue station be provided with at least twelve permissible cap lamps, facilities to recharge them, two gas detectors for each type of gas found in the mine, and two oxygen indicators or flame safety lamps.  According to law, there must also be an approved mine rescue communications system at the rescue station, and you must be provided with enough spare parts and other tools to maintain both the communications system and the breathing apparatus.  The law also tells how your apparatus and other equipment should be maintained.  It specifies how often equipment should be checked, by whom, and how Iong records of these tests must be kept on file.  With reference to this, the law says:

"Mine rescue apparatus and equipment shall be maintained in a manner which will assure readiness for immediate use.  A person trained in the use and care of breathing apparatus shall inspect and test the apparatus at intervals not exceeding 30 days.  A record of inspections and tests shall be maintnined at the mine rescue station for a period of one year."

To receive NIOSH and MSHA approval, selfcontained breathing apparatus must meet specific requirements as to design and construction, and must operate satisfactorily during a specified series of actual wearing tests.  The exact requirements for approval are outlined in Title 30, of the Code of Federal Regulations (30CFR), Part 1 ].

Certain apparatus approved formerly under Schedule 13 by the Bureau of Mines have been "conditionally approved" under 30 CFR and can still be used if manufactured and purchased before June 30, 1975, and if the apparatus has been properly maintained.

The McCaa apparatus is an example of an apparatus approved under Schedule 13 and still acceptable for mine rescue work.

e. Approval Labels- AlI approved apparatus are required by law to display an approval label on the unit.  This label must bear the MSHA label and the sea1 of NIOSH, an approval number, and the name of the apparatus's manufacturer.

In addition to this, the label tells:

l. The type of apparatus (compressed oxygen, liquid oxygen, and so forth);

2. The approved service time of the apparatus (for instance, 2 or 3 hours);

3. The part numbers for component parts approved to be used with the apparatus (such as the facepiece part number or the breathing bag part number);

4. The limitations of the apparatus (such as the temperature range for use of the apparatus); and

5. Any special precautions that should be taken while using the apparatus.  An apparatus approved under Schedule 13 will not have a current NIOSHl/MSHA approval label on it.  However, the apparatus should carry a Bureau of Mines approval label, bearing the seal of the Bureau and listing information similar to that on the current NIOSH/MSHA approval labels.

All approvai labels should be read carefully so that the apparatus can be used in an approved manner.  Also, if you should ever be in a situation where you are using an apparatus which is new to you (perhaps another team's equipment), the label will give you some basic information to help familiarize you with the apparatus.

VI. Wearing the apparatus

When you enter a mine as a mine rescue team, you may find yourself in smoke or poisonous gases, or not enoueh oxygen to keep you alive.  That is why you wear an apparatus in mine rescue work.  The apparatus will prorect your lungs from smoke and poisonous gases, and provide safe air for you to breathe.

There are, however, some conditions under which the apparatus will not entirely protect you:

1. Self-contained breathing apparatus will not protect you from toxic amounts of poisonous gases, dusts, or vapors that may injure your skin or be absorbed through your skin into your system.  For example, fairly high concentrations of ammonia will injure your skin and hydrogen cyanide can be absorbed through your skin.

2. Your apparatus will not protect you if it is worn extensively in petroleum vapors.  These vapors will permeate and deteriorate the rubber parts of the apparatus.

3. In air which is much above normal atmospheric pressure(14.7 pounds per square inch), it can be dangerous to wear an apparatus that supplies you with pure or nearly pure oxygen.  Special precautions and procedures from the apparatus's manufacturer which allow the safe use of breathing apparatus under high atmospheric pressure should be followed.

a. Limitations of Wearing an Apparatus- Wearing any apparatus has its limitations.  That is, there are things it cannot do and special factors you should take into consideration whcn you wear it.

In general, seeing, speaking, moving, working, and breathing are all a little different when you are wearing the apparatus.  Understanding these differences and learning to cope with them can have a significant arfect on how well you do your job.

Apparatus designed by various manufacturers are all going to be a bit different.  You will be practicing wearing and working with your apparatus so that you can get used to the feel of it and how it works.

For now, we will talk generally about what it's like to wear an apparatus and what the general limitations are.

b. Time Limit, Work Rate, and Breathing Rate- Any self-contained breathing apparatus that you use will limit the time you'll have in which to work underground.  Your apparatus wiil be approved for a specified amount of time per wearing called the "service time."

The service time is established assuming that you work at a moderate rate.  If you work extremely hard, you will be breathing faster and you will be consuming your oxygen or air at a faster rate.  Also, nervousness or excitement can cause you to breath faster; and use more oxygen.  In addition, the roughness of the terain you must travel and the heat and humidity of the area you will be in can affect your breathing rate and consequently, the service time.  You should try to avoid breathing too quickly while wearing the apparatus.  Short, shallow breathing or panting causes you to get an insufficient amount of oxygen and you may begin to feel faint.  So if you find yourself breathing quickly, try to control your breathing and slow it down.

Also, you will probably experience some resistance to breathing while wearing the apparatus' facepiece.  This is is caused by the air pressure in the facepiece.  With practice and familiarity with the apparatus, you should be able to compensate for this resistance.

c. Weight and Size of Apparatus- The requirements for apparatus approval specify that an apparatus can weigh up to 40 pounds.  This extra weight you will be wearying will affect your endurance, your rate of work, and your maneuverability.  Therefore you will have to practice working with the apparatus on so that you can get used to moving and working with the extra weight and bulk.

One thing to remember while wearing the apparatus:All vour movements should be slow and deliberate.

d. Seeing- The requirements for apparatus approval specify that facepieces be designed and constructed to provide adequate vision.  Still, when you wear the facepiece, you will find yourself turning your head and body more often than usual to see things around you.

Remember again: All movements while wearing the apparatus should be slow and deliberate.

Also, the heat and moisture produced within some of the apparatus can cause the facepiece to fog, making it difficult for you to see.  Yet there are special "anti-fog" solutions that can be applied to the facepiece lens to help prevent it from fogging up on you.

e. Speaking- It is going to be more difficult to communicate while wearing the facepiece because your voice will be distorted.  All the facepieces have a speaking diaphragm to transmit your voice to the outside of the facepiece but they tend to muffle your voice.  You may find yourself having to speak a little louder and slower than usual in order to be understood.  Also, you should try to talk as little as possible while wearing the apparatus.  This means to cut our all unnecessary "chatter" so that only important information is communicated.

f. Facepiece Seal- When you wear the facepiece, it is extremely important to have a good tight seal around your face.  This is known as the face-to-facepiece seal, or simply as the facepiece seal.

A good seal will prevent smoke and poisonous gases from leaking into the facepiece and infiltrating your air supply.  It will also prevent any inadvertent leak of oxygen or air from inside the facepiece to the outside atmosphere.

So it is very importanr to tighten your facepiece snugly to your face and test it to make sure there aren't any leaks.  Such things as very prominent cheekbones or deep scars could prevent a good seal.  Other conditions that prevent a good facepiece seal are: (1) eyeglasses, and (2) beards and bushy sideburns, which are not recommended to be worn with any breathing apparatus.

Eyeglasses can prevent a good face-to-facepiece seal and should not be worn with many types of facepieces.  Sometimes, however, eyeglasses will fit within the facepiece without disturbing the facepiece seal.  Some facepieces even allow for the insertion of corrective lenses directly into the facepiece.

Also, wearing contact lenses with the facepiece on is considered very hazardous even though they don't prevent a good facepiece seal.  There is evidence that contact lenses may become lodged above the eye due to pressure in the facepiece, so they should not be worn.

VII. The Drager BG-174 A

a. Introduction- The Draeger BG 174-A (or 1 74) is a self-contained,closed-circuit breathing apparatus that you carry on back.  For a limited time, it supplies you with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide from the air you breathe.

The Draeger breathing apparatus recycles and replenishes the air in a continuous cycle within the apparatus, completely independent of the air around it.

The BG 174-A weighs about 30 pounds, and its working are protected by a carrying frame and metal cover.  If you encounter conditions such as low roof or an obstructed pathway during rescue and recovery operations, you can remove the Draeger BG 174-A from your back and push it ahead of you or pull it behind you.

The Draeger apparatus is also equipped with automatic and manually-operated safety devices and other features, including pressure gauges to let you know how much oxygen you have.

Once the oxygen cylinder is opened, the unit functions by itself, so aside from checking the pressure gauge now and then, you can concentrate on your work.

b. Where You Wear it- The fact that the Draeger apparatus is independent of surrounding air makes it particularly well-suited for mine rescue and recovery work after fires and explosions, where you may encounter smoke, toxic or poisonous gases, fumes, or other conditions that make the air around you unfit to breathe.

The apparatus will not offer protection against poisonous gases absorbed through your skin such as hydrocyanic acid.

Because the BG 174-A can provide you with up to 4 hours of breathing protection.  The apparatus is especially good for underground work or in other situations where it may be hard to determine exactly how much time you will need in order to complete your work.

c. How it Works- Basically, the BG 174-A breathing apparatus works like this: When you inhale, oxygen from the oxygen bottle flows through the breathing bag ,and travels up the inhalation tube to you.  When you breathe out; the exhaled air passes into a regenerative canister where chemicals remove carbon dioxide, a by-product of the breathing process.  Then it's passed along to the breathing bag in the middle of the unit where it's mixed with free oxygen and the whole process begins again.  The oxygen you use up when you breathe is replaced from an oxygen cylinder at the rate of I.5 liters per minute.  This is known as "constant flow" metering.  If you use up oxygen at a faster rate, a lung demand valve built into the apparatus responds by letting more oxygen into the system.

d. Oxygen Cylinder- Once the cover is removed, you can easily see the unit's oxygen cylinder, which is fitted horizontally to the bottom of the frame.

The BG 174-A's cylinder is made or strong alloyed steel.  It has a capacity of 2 liters, which is roughly equivalent to 2 quarts.  At full pressure the cylinder can contain up to 440 liters of compressed oxygen.

The cylinder must be tested every 5 years to see that it remains in good condition.

Just opposite the connection that joins the cylinder to the unit is the cylinder valve which is used to open and close the cylinder.  This valve has a special "slip clutch" design which helps keep you from opening or closing it accidentally.  To open the cylinder valve, pull out on it and with two fingers, gently turn it counterclockwise until it's all the way open, then turn it back about a half turn.  Turning it back half a turn leaves some "play" in the valve so that when you're wearing the apparatus you can reach back and assure yourself that the valve is open.

When you close the valve, again pull it out and with two fingers only.  Turn it clockwise until the valve is closed.

The "two-finger" method is recommended because twisting the valve too hard can strip or otherwise damage the threads on the valve seat's spindle.

On the top of your oxygen cylinder is a safety device known as the pressure burst cap.

When the pressure within the cylinder reaches 4450 PSI, the cap will "burst," allowing oxygen to escape through holes in it.  This keeps the bottle from rupturing with great force.  Heat can cause the cylinder to approach the 4450 PSI "danger limit."

At 2000 PSI, it takes approximately 700' F to make the oxygen within the cylinder expand to 4450 PSI. causing the cap to burst.  With a full, four-hour cylinder - 3135 PSI-it takes approximately 300o F to do the same thing .